A Psycho-Educational Method Based on the Theory of Neural Connectivity Applied to People with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research, 66(4), 58888-58897.   BJSTR. MS.ID.010362. http://dx.doi.org/10.26717/BJSTR.2026.66.010362

PhD Manuel Ojea Rúa

ABSTRACT

Autism spectrum disorder can be defined as a neuropsychological developmental disorder, featuring severe limitations in information processing, especially in sensory perception and working memory, which makes it impossible to establish the necessary pathways in working memory to create episodic memory; it's the relationship between episodic and semantic memory where context-specific recovery is facilitated. Likewise, from a behavioural perspective, it may involve limitations of differing degrees of intensity in social interaction and communication, as well as stereotyped and restrictive behaviours. This study analysed the consequences of applying the method, called by author the ‘Connectivity Theory’, aiming to assess the improvement in global academic development, specifically owing the positive correlation with to-be-attributed dependent variables, which constitute the different phases and levels of neuropsychological information processing. A total of 6 people with autism participated in this study. The data, analysed throughout 2 school years, were assessed according to the General Linear Model for Repeated Measures (4 measurements), which enabled us identify the intersection between the learning factor 1-2: “learning” and the process variables dependents.

Results found through the analysis of parameter estimates showed a significant positive correlation (< .05) between the factor (codes 1 and 2) and all the dependent variables used, exception being the variable related to stereotyped and restrictive behaviours: "stereotypies" variable.

KEY WORDS

Autism spectrum disorder, neural connectivity, information processing, and applied functional methods.

LINK

Perceptive- Cognitive Functional Learning Model Based on The Self-Management of Students with Autistic Spectrum Disorder: A Comparative Analysis

E-BOOKS In American Journal of Biomedical & Resesarch, September, 2026

ISSN: 2642-1747

DOI: 10.34297/AJBSR.2019.01.000523
Creative Commons, CC-BY 

PhD Manuel Ojea Rúa & PhD Nuria Diéguez García

Abstract:

Teaching-learning models applied to students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) must focus on naturalistic didactic processes to facilitate the self-management of own student through the previous given competences, following local semantic process structure they describe yourinformation processing way. A total of 20 students with ASD have participated in the study, aged between 6 and 14 age years, divided into two groups, an experimental group (EG) consisting of 10 students and a control group (CG) formed by 10 other students. Results found along 3 successive measures over 8 months, performed throughout ANOVA W test of 1-factor comparative measures, allows to conclude the students who belong to EG significantly improved in aspects related to conceptual coding and in self-management of their own learning, with respect to their CG peers.

LINK BLOOKLET

Perceptive- Cognitive Functional Learning Model Based on The Self-Management of Students with Autistic Spectrum Disorder: A Comparative Analysis

EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF THE PS-PC-ASD-R (2ND ED.)

Experimental Validation of the Revised Perceptual-Cognitive-Behavioural Precision Scale for The Diagnosis of People with Autism (PS-PC-ASD-R, 2nd ed.) 

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS    ISSN(print): 2643-9840, ISSN(online): 2643-9875 Volume 09 Issue 06 June 2026.

 DOI: 10.47191/ijmra/v9 Page No. 3987-4002

Manuel Ojea Rúa

ABSTRACT: 

This article presents the experimental validation of the Revised Perceptual-Cognitive-Behavioural Precision Scale (PS 2nd ed.) for the Diagnosis of the ASD (Ojea, 2026a), which has been specifically published as free access by Ojea (2026b) and constitutes the validated extension of their original scale, the Perceptual-Cognitive Scale for the Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder Revised (EPPC-ASD-R) (Ojea, 2024) A total of 346 participants were involved in this new edition, comprising 254 ‘males’ and 92 ‘females’; the study found a high level of statistical reliability, as determined by Cronbach’s alpha reliability analysis (α= .91). Subsequently, the experimental justification is presented, based on the analysis of the transformation of the direct scores (PD) into the typical scores (Z), from which the corresponding percentiles (P) are defined, relating both to the variables being analysed and to the dimensional categories comprising those variables. Final data for which are coded on a quantitative scale, constituting the final diagnostic analysis.  The whole process has been analysed experimentally through specific regression analysis, which demonstrates the significance of the variables collected for the analysis and, consequently, highlights the importance of the dimensions analysed, concluding with an effective diagnosis of ASD. 

KEYWORDS: 

Autism Spectrum Disorder, Specific Diagnosis, Cognition, Perception, Social and Behavioural analysis.

Article Link :  https://ijmra.in/v9i6/77.php

PDF link :  https://ijmra.in/v9i6/Doc/77.pdf

Index Copernicus :  https://journals.indexcopernicus.com/search/article?articleId=4904937

Zenodo Link :   https://zenodo.org/records/21060067

Linkedin : https://www.linkedin.com/posts/international-journal-of-multidisciplinary-research-and-analysis-790a321b9_article-title-experimental-validation-of-activity-7477638426511626240-w45S?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_desktop&rcm=ACoAADLgTNwBj0n94due3UQcX_M41UYEPYgcBGA

Google Scholar : https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=Lqx6f68AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate

 

INTEGRAL DIAGNOSTIC OF PEOPLE WITH AUTISM

Perceptual-Cognitive-Behavioural Precision Scale for Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder. In European Modern studes Journal, 10(2) ,213-242.

PhD Manuel Ojea Rúa,2026.

Abstract

Regarding the variables of age and gender can be seen in Table 1, which corresponds to 254 (>: "males” and 92 “females”. The Cronbach's alpha reliability analysis is significantly high (=.91), which can be inferred to indicate a high degree of statistical reliability in the study (Ojea, 2026). Finally, the fundamental data that shaped the ASD diagnostic process are indicated, as the direct scores from the observation dimensions (DS) are transformed into their corresponding typical values to continue the rest of the study (ZS), which finally located each Z-score for each participant within the corresponding percentile (P), concluding the ASD diagnostic process.

Key words:

Autism Spectrum Disorder; Diagnosis; Cognition, Perception and Behavioural analysis.

 LINK

PROGRAMA PARA EL DESARROLLO DE LOS PROCESOS COGNITIVOS SUPERIORES EN ESTUDIANTES CON AUTISMO

PROGRAMA DE INTERVENCIÓN PSICOEDUCATIVO APLICADO A ESTUDIANTES CON TRASTORNO DEL ESPECTRO AUTISTA (PIPS-EAP-TEA).

Manuel Ojea Rúa, mayo 2026.

Ediciones Barcelona, Lima, Perú.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF DIAGNOSIS AND BEHAVIOUR BY GENDER IN PEOPLE WITH ASD

 International Journal of Current Science Research and Review, Vol 9 No 4 (2026), pp. 2177-2190

Comparative analysis of diagnosis and behaviour by gender (men and women) in people with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Manuel Ojea Rúa
Lydia Castro Núñez

ABSTRACT: People with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) constitute a specific group, characterized by neurobiological developmental alterations in systemic development at the level of psycho- cerebral information processing, which affects men at a higher prevalence of 3–4 men for every woman, although little research has been conducted into the causes of this difference. This study aims to analyze, where applicable, whether there are possible differences in the gender variable (men and women) in relation to the etiological basis and subsequent behavior or profile. To this end, a total of 116 participants with ASD took part, comprising 87 men and 29 women, who agreed to answer the questions posed in a questionnaire-interview. As can be seen from the results, it can be concluded that, in relation to the determining statistic of the KMO and Bartlett’s Test factor analysis, the group of men presents a greater explanatory load with regard to the genetic burden associated with the 15q11-q13 chromosomal region (sig: .02); whilst the ‘diseaseway’ variable shows a greater explanatory load in the women’s group in the coefficients of the linear regression analysis, with a significance level of 0.02 in the determinant statistics. However, in no case can significant general differences in the diagnostic process be corroborated between the codes; yet, the coping component in relation to the genetic burden and/or early-onset diseases is clearly differential in the codes of the “gender” variable, which may lead to confusion with current analyses of the diagnostic process. 

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KEYWORDS: Autism Spectrum Disorder, differences in diagnosis between men and women with ASD, behavioral differences related to ‘gender’, genetics and autism, early-life illnesses and autism, environmental and organic factors within the family. 

April Issue: click here
Article link: click here

Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.47191/ijcsrr/V9-i4-50

Index Copernicus: https://journals.indexcopernicus.com/search/article?articleId=4853507
Europub: https://europub.co.uk/articles/788621
Zenodo: https://zenodo.org/records/19894602
Open Air: https://explore.openaire.eu/search/result?pid=10.5281/zenodo.19894602
Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7455311414367473666
Academia.edu: https://www.academia.edu/166115306/Comparative_Analysis_of_Diagnosis_and_Behaviour_by_Gender_Men_and_Women_in_People_with_Autism_Spectrum_Disorder

RECONCEPTUALIZACIÓN DEL DIAGNÓSTICO DEL AUTISMO

 

Diario La Región, 22-4-2026 (on line puede verse el artículo completo):

 https://www.laregion.es/xornal-escolar/reconceptualizacion-sistemica-autismo-urgencia-necesaria_1_20260422-4246737.html 

TEST DE DIAGNÓSTICO DEL AUTISMO

 

ESCALA DE DIAGNÓSTICO DEL AUTISMO (VERSIÓN INGLÉS)

BP INTERNATIONAL: India and United Kigndom, February, 2026.

• Description

Currently, diagnostic assessment tools for individuals with ASD, even those that have been empirically validated, are based on the analysis of social and behavioural criteria. However, scientific research in the area of ASD has progressed significantly in developing hypotheses about perceptual-cognitive functioning, which involves highly specific psycho-neurological information processing. These factors, which are so important for understanding how people with ASD interact with the world, are not sufficiently operationalised for the assessment of the disorder in current assessment scales and tests, which can give rise to significant errors in the ASD diagnostic process. For this reason, a Perceptual-Cognitive-Behavioural Integration Scale (PS-PC-ASD-R) was developed for the diagnostic assessment of individuals with ASD.  It systematically integrates social and behavioural variables with factors that form part of the particular mode of perceptual-cognitive processing of individuals with ASD from the initial reception of the stimulus, source memory, the creation of neural relationships or nodes to encoding information by working memory, access to information in semantic and episodic memory, and the processes of retrieving encoded content according to the exigencies of the context. The PS-PC-ASD-R has been empirically validated through various specific quantitative experimental analyses throughout the study. The sample comprised a total of 346 participants, with and without an ASD diagnosis, corresponding to the three levels of intensity (APA, 2013), with a highly reliable level found in the Cronbach’s alpha reliability analysis, which is significantly high (a = .91), which can be inferred to indicate a high degree of statistical reliability in the study. The fundamental data that shaped the ASD diagnostic process are indicated, as the direct scores from the observation dimensions (DS) are transformed into their corresponding typical-score to continue the rest of the study (ZS), which finally located each ZS for each participant within the corresponding percentile (P), concluding the ASD diagnostic process.
Finally, located each ZS total for each participant within the corresponding percentile (P), concluding the ASD’ diagnostic process, concluding, mild ASD (level 1) ranges between the 50th-55th and 65th percentiles, which increases significantly to moderate intensity (level 2) between the 70th and 80th percentiles, and finally, the equivalent score for severe ASD ranges between the 85th and 100th percentiles.

NUEVA TESIS DOCTORAL: GENÉTICA Y AUTISMO

Hoy, 06/02/2026, se ha presentado en la Facultad de Trabajo y Educación Soal de la Escuela Internacional del Doctorado EIDO de la Univeridad de Vigo, una innovadora Tesis Doctoral, titulada ANÁLISIS ETIOLÓGICO DEL TRASTORNO DEL ESPECTRO AUTISTA, fundamentada en los principios psico- epi- genéticos y ambientals, la cual ha obtenido la máxima cualifiación académica.

TESIS DOCTORAL: Análisis etiológico del trastorno del espectro autista, 6/02/2026.

DOCTORANDA: Dra. Lydia Castro Núñez.

DIRECTORES: Manuel Ojea Rúa y Antonio González Fernández.

EHORABUENA LYDIA!

IMPORTANCIA DE LA MEMORIA FUENTE PARA EL APRENDIZAJE DE ALUMNOS Y ALUMNAS CON AUTISMO

DIARIO LA REGIÓN, 28/01/2026

 

Comparison between the Autism Diagnostic Interview Revised (ADI-R) and the Perceptual Behavioural Precision Scale (PS-PC-ASD)

Comparison between the Autism Diagnostic Interview Revised (ADI-R) and the Perceptual Behavioural Precision Scale (PS-PC-ASD) for the Diagnosis of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder

PhD Manuel Ojea Rúa

European Modern Studies Journal, 9(6), 368-383

Abstract

Ojea (2023) has published a Perceptual-Behavioural Precision Scale (PS-PC-ASD) for the diagnosis of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which are made up of three main domains weighted based on the number of items 
that each domain contains: 1) the perceptual-cognitive domain, 2) the social domain, and 3) the practical domain, in the aim of incorporating the measurement of cognitive values that involve the level of neuropsychological and biological processing of information, starting from the input of information of the sensory-perceptual memory into the semantic and episodic memory if possible, as well as the interconceptual relationships developed by the coding processes, which provide this access through working memory.

This study compared the data resulting from the ASD' diagnosis, found in accordance with the PS-PC-ASD Scale, in relation to the Autism Diagnostic Interview Revised (ADI-R) (Rutter et al., 2003), which is based mainly on the basic criteria of the currently official International Classification of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2013).

The main aim of this study is therefore to observe whether there're statistically significant differences in the diagnosis of people with ASD between the two Scales, the ADI-R Scale and the PS-PC-ASD Scale.

The comparative levels, found through the Wilcoxon statistical test, showed that there were significant differences in the diagnostic results of the participants, according to diagnostic Scale applied (sig: .00).

Furthermore, the Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test found the variables of 'gender' and 'age' of the participants were interdependent for both Scales. Results didn't were shown significant differences in the variable ‘gender’ for the ADI-R Scale, non-significant critical levels were obtained (sig: .27), nor for the PS-PC-ASD Scale (sig: .81). However, when the PS-PC-ASD Scale was used, significant critical levels were observed for the variable ‘age’ (sig: .01), whereas in the ADI-R Scale, no statistically significant levels were found for ‘age’ variable (sig: .09).

Keywords: ASD, Diagnostic Scale, Cognition, Perception, Social, Behaviour, Neuropsychological Processing.

 Localización del Instituto de Investagaciones Científicas en Autismo, localizado en la Universidad de Vigo.

VALIDATION OF THE PRECISION SCALE PERCEPTIVE-COGNITIVE TO PEOLE WITH ASD DIAGNOSIS 'PS-PC-ASD'

Please, check the publication: https://ejtas.com/index.php/journal/article/view/1751

VALIDATION OF PRECISON SCALE PERCEPTIVE-COGNITVE TO PEOPLE WIHT ASD DIAGNOSIS 'PS-PC-ASD'

INTRODUCTION

Ojea, M. (2026). Validation of Precision Sale Perceptive-Cognitive to Peple with ASD diagnosis PS-PC-ASD'.  European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, 4(1), 147-168.

Ojea (2023) has published the Precision Scale Perceptivo- Cognitive (PS-PC-ASD), with the aim of determining the diagnosis of people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which consists of three main weighted domains: 1) the perceptual-cognitive domain, 2) the social domain, and 3) the practical domain, in order to incorporate the measurement of cognitive neural values, which involve the level of neuropsychological and biological processing of information, from the input of information through perceptual sensory memory to semantic memory and its related episodic memory, as well as the development of interconceptual relationships that develop throughout the processes of information coding through working memory.

In this study, the PS-PC-ASD scale has been validated for a total of N: 346 participants, which is a significantly broad sample, being a highly specific group, of which 112 don’t have any specific diagnosis, 140 have a level 1 autism diagnosis, 67 have level 2, and 27 have level 3, as the International Classification of the American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2013).

The comparative data, obtained using a one-way ANOVA test, as well as the subsequent transformation of all direct scores (DS) found in the observation questionnaire into typical scores (Z), were used to construct the three categorical dimensions with typified scores: 1) processing category, 2) social category, and 3) behavioural category, whose typical sum provides a highly accurate analysis of explanatory variance, analysed using stepwise linear regression analysis, in which the three dimensions exhibit significant critical levels explaining the diagnostic data within the three categories (sig: .00).

Finally, the correspondence of the total sum of typical scores found in accordance with the corresponding percentile, in intervals of five, the 50th percentile has corresponded to the typical average sum of -1.38, from which point a diagnosis compatible with autism can be definitively considered. From this percentile onwards, an increase in intensity implies greater severity in the diagnostic group for this disorder.

In essence, the initial data found for the construction of the Scale has been corroborated, concluding that the Diagnostic Precision scale is a highly effective and positive instrument for the specific diagnostic precision of individuals with ASD.

Keywords: autism spectrum disorder, diagnostic test, perception, cognition, semantic memory, source memory, episodic memory.

ANÁLISIS COMPARATIVO DE LOS MODELOS DE ENSEÑANZA-APRENDIZAJE EN ESTUDIANTES CON TRASTORNO DEL ESPECTRO AUTISTA

ANÁLISIS COMPARATIVO DE LOS MODELOS DE ENSEÑANZA-APRENDIZAJE EN ESTUDIANTES CON TRASTORNO DEL ESPECTRO AUTISTA. 

En B. Silva et al. XVIII Congresso Internacional de Psicopedagogía, 2025 (pp. 2083-2092). Braga (Portugal): Centro de Investigação em Educação, do Instituto de Educação, da Universidade do Minho  Universidade do Mihno.

Manuel Ojea Rúa

Resumen 

Conceptualmente, el trastorno del espectro autista (TEA) se define como una discapacidad relacionada con las alteraciones del neurodesarrollo, en relación con la vía de transmisión de la información a nivel cerebral, a través del sistema funcional del ácido gamma- aminobutírico o sistema GABAérgico, que es observado conductualmente a través de déficits manifiestos en el ámbito de la comunicación, la interacción social y los comportamientos repetitivos y restrictivos, como así está recogido por la Clasificación Internacional de las Enfermedades: DSM-5 (Asociación Americana de Psiquiatría (APA), 2013). La tasa prevalente, según los Centros para el Control y la Prevención de Enfermedades, se sitúa alrededor de 1/44 personas nacidas, en una proporción de 4 hombres por 1.5 mujeres. Pues bien, con el fin de analizar si existen diferencias significativas en la adquisición de competencias cognoscitivas y el desarrollo de las habilidades complejas cognitivas en los estudiantes con TEA, el diseño de esta investigación se ha basado en la realización de 30 encuestas en centros educativos regulares (N= 30), en los cuales se escolarizan estudiantes con TEA. Los datos han sido analizados mediante la prueba comparativa no paramétrica U de Mann-Wihtney. Las conclusiones indican que los estudiantes con TEA, que han seguido un modelo basado en proyectos cooperativos, mejoran sensiblemente en el ámbito psico- social y educativo, en relación con sus pares que han continuado una enseñanza tradicional de tipo magistral. Palabras- clave: Trastorno del espectro autista, desarrollo curricular, cognición, análisis relacional. 

Abstract 

Conceptually, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is made up of a disability regarding to neurodevelopmental disorders, relationship with the transmission pathway of information at brain level, through the functional system of gamma-aminobutyric acid or GABAergic system, which is observed through manifest deficits in the field of communication, social interaction and restrictive behaviours, as it´s included in the International Classification of Diseases: DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 2013), whose prevalence, according Center for Disease Control and Prevention, around 1/44 persons born has been reported with a ratio of 4 males to 1.5 females. In this research, in seeking to observe whether there're significant differences regarding the acquisition of cognitive competences and the development of complex cognitive abilities in students with ASD, the research design based on 30 interviews in regular educational centres (N=30), where students with ASD are schooled. Data found tested using the non-parametric Mann-Wihtney U Test. Conclusions indicate that students with ASD, who have followed a cooperative project-based model, improve significantly in the psycho-social and educational domains, regarding to their peers who have received a traditional master class teaching. Keywords: Autism spectrum disorder, curriculum development, cognition, relational analysis. 

VER CAPÍTULO COMPLETO

LIBRO: MI PEQUEÑO HÁMSTER Y YO. UNA HISTORIA PERSONAL FASCINANTE

 

MI PEQUEÑO HÁMSTER Y YO. UNA HISTORIA PERSONAL FASCINANTE

Por Manuel Ojea Rúa

Aunque el manual va dirigido a todas las personas, que le guste la lectura, el libro constituye una narrativa, en relación con los acontecimientos, que vive Dani, un niño con autismo, su forma de percibir la información y actuar en el mundo, a partir de sus características peculiares. Para ello, el manual se halla estructurado en 32 Capítulos complementados con imágenes relacionadas, con el fin de facilitar la creación de nodos neurales en los niños con autismo y éstos puedan facilitar la comprensión semántica de su lectura.

 

 

 

 

ISBN: 979-13-7012-993-4

DEPÓSITO LEGAL: AL6280-2025

Ojea, M. (2025. Mi pequeño Hámster y Yo. Una historia personal fascinante. ISBN: 979-13-70-12-993-4. DEPÓSITO LEGAL: AL 6280-2025. Unión Europea: Ediciones LETRAME. www.LETRAME.com

EL DESARROLLO DE LA CONECTIVIDAD NEURONAL EN PERSONAS CON AUTISMO. BREVE INTRODUCCIÓN AL PROGRAMA DE DESARROLLO DE LOS PROCESOS COGNITIVOS SUPERIORES

Manuel Ojea Rúa

VER ARTÍCULO COMPLETO

La Región 22/19/2025, Xornal Escolar, p. 8

PRESENTACIÓN DEL TEST PARA LA EVALUACIÓN DE PERSONAS CON TRASTORNOS DEL ESPECTRO AUTISTA EP-PC-TEA

 XVIII CONGRESSO INTERNACIONAL GALEGO- PORTUGUÊS DE PSICOPEDAGOGIA

PRESENTACIÓN DEL TEST PARA LA EVALUACIÓN DE PERSONAS CON TRASTORNOS DEL ESPECTRO AUTISTA EP-PC-TEA 

La presentación tedrá lugar el día 3 de setiembre de 2025, a las 19 horas, en la Universidade do Minho (Braga- Portugal).

ADQUIRIR EL LIBRO COMPLETO:

EDICIONES BARCELONA, PERÚ.

Miguel Ángel Pinto: mapperu@outlook.com

Librería ITES (La Coruña).

SINOPSIS:

La Escala de Precisión Diagnóstica Perceptivo- Cognitiva- Conductual del Trastorno del Espectro Autista permite complementar el análisis del diagnóstico del autismo, a través de la medida de las variables que conforman el procesamiento neuropsicológico de la información humano, con el fin de evitar los elevados errores del diagnóstico del TEA existentes en la actualidad, derivados de análisis unilateral del componente criterial conductual de las actuales Escalas tradicionales. La baremación empírica de la Escala, realizada para N= 75, ha permitido obtener una fiabilidad estadística del Alpha de Cronbach medio superior al.91 en las diez dimensiones que conforman la Escala: 1) comprensión, 2) significantes, 3) categorías conceptuales, 4) relaciones- nodos neurales, 5) relaciones intercategoriales, 6) recuperación semántica, 7) interacción social, 8) comunicación social, 9) comportamientos estereotipados, y 10) comportamientos restrictivos. El cálculo estadístico de las diez dimensiones se ha agrupado en torno a tres grandes categorías del análisis: 1) procesamiento perceptivocognitivo, 2) interacción social, y 3) comportamiento. Los análisis concluyentes indican que la categoría del procesamiento explica el 88.52 de la varianza total explicativa acumulada, mientras que la categoría social el 10.19% y el comportamiento el restante 1.28, lo cual demuestra la importancia del análisis del factor dimensional perceptivo- cognitivo para poder establecer con seguridad los percentiles medios que permiten realizar una conclusión diagnóstica relativa a cada nivel de TEA, de acuerdo con los niveles elaborados por la clasificación internacional de la Asociación Americana de Psiquiatría DSM-5 (APA, 2013).